National Symbols of India[38][39] Flag Tricolour Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital Anthem Jana Gana Mana Song Vande Mataram Animal Royal Bengal Tiger Bird Indian Peacock Aquatic animal Dolphin Flower Lotus Tree Banyan Fruit Mango Sport Field hockey Calendar Saka River Ganges The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on 26 January, 1950.[40] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[41] India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weaker states, [42] but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.[43] The President of India is the head of state[44] elected indirectly by an electoral college[45] for a five-year term.[46][47] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive powers.[44] Appointed by the President, [48] the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[44] The executive

Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[50] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[51] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[51] 543

India has unresolved territorial disputes with P. R. China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test[36] and five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state

proportion to the state's population.[51] 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[51] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that the community is not adequately represented.[51] India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[52] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[53] It is judicially independent, [52] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution.[54] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[55] Administrative divisions

cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[67] India was involved in two brief military interventions in neighbouring countries – Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and Operation Cactus in Maldives. India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[68] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed and continued

regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[61] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[62] The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both

Climate of India

Topographic map of India.India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[74]

India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million